Theories and their meanings

Theory  1:   Hypodermic Needle Model

Theorist/s: Harold Lasswell

When did the theory start? The theory started around World War, 1927.

What is the theory? The theory is basically about injecting thoughts and values and beliefs in the audience. The mass media in the 1940s and 1950s were perceived as a powerful influence on behaviour.  Several factors contributed to this “strong effects” theory of communication, including: the fast rise and popularisation of radio and television the emergence of the persuasion industries, such as advertising and propaganda the Payne Fund studies of the 1930s, which focused on the impact of motion pictures on children Hitler’s monopolization of the mass media during WWII to unify the German public behind the Nazi party.

Does this theory see the audience as active or passive? Why do you think this? They see the audience as being passive as they basically absorb everything in and believe everything you see. The model was used for years to convince us that the media could have such terrible and dangerous influence over our lives. The theory works around the idea of “copycat” – that is to say that it assumes the audience will copy whatever they see on screen.

Apply the theory to a film of your choice. If the theory is correct, what will be the response of the audience to the film? An example of this part of the theory been put into use is the James Bulger case in 1993. His killers Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, aged ten, had seen a very graphic scene from the film ‘Chucky’ and decided they would re-in-act some of the graphic events from the film on a young boy. He was subjected to such awful and sick violence from two ten year old children, who should not in themselves be subject to such violence through the media. However, the two boys were passive when watching ‘Chucky’ and were less sensitive to the violence, meaning they thought it was acceptable to carry out such violence in reality.

Theory  2:  Reception Theory

Theorist/s: Stuart Hall

When did the theory start? The theory started In the late 1960s.

What is the theory? The theory is about when media texts encode messages and then the audience decode them. This depends on the responses and mainly the cultural background.  Reception theory provides a means of understanding media texts by understanding how these texts are read by audiences. Theorists who analyse media through reception studies are concerned with the experience of cinema and television viewing for spectators, and how meaning is created through that experience. An important concept in reception theory is that the media text—the individual movie or television program—has no inherent meaning in and of itself. Instead, meaning is created in the interaction between spectator and text; in other words, meaning is created as the viewer watches and processes the film.

Does this theory see the audience as active or passive? Why do you think this? This theory sees the audience as active as you are making up your own mind.

Apply the theory to a film of your choice. If the theory is correct, what will be the response of the audience to the film? The movie ‘Toy Story’, in 1995, allowed for both children and adults to connect to the movie.  Pixar targets both active audiences because without the adults taking the children to the movies, they wouldn’t be able to go at all.  The movie must be worthwhile for parents to take their time to bring their child to the movie and so the reception theory is put into place.  By making the scenes polysemic it allows for negotiated meanings, which means, "In reception studies when an audience member creates a personally meaningful interpretation of content that differs from the preferred reading in important ways"  ‘Toy Story’, brings the childhood memories back to adults of playing make believe games with their toys and action figures,  allowing them to reminisce on prior experiences and behaviours to the make the movie entertaining which in turn helps them derive their own interpretation of the film.  Children see the movie as their present day experiences, relating to the movie first hand.  Their imaginations’ are stimulated and the actuality of the film, (talking toys), becomes a fantasised reality for the kids allowing them to make their own interpretations, different from their parents.  Overall, children see the preferred reading, "the meaning the producer intended to make", and parents see a negotiated meaning allowing both audience groups to be entertained by their own interpretations. An example scene from the movie that properly illustrates a good example of the reception theory is the scene where the toys from the movie confront the physically abusive kid, Sid, about treating Woody and Buzz along with his other toys better.

Theory  3:  Uses and Gratifications Theory

Theorist/s: Laswell Blumer & Katz

When did the theory start? The late 1960s.

What is the theory? Most of the theories on media explain about the effects media has on people. It is the theory which explains how people use media for their need and gratification. This theory states what media does to people and not what people do with media. Theorists argue that people's needs influence how they use and respond to a medium. Uses & Gratification can be seen as part of a broader trend amongst media researchers which is more concerned with 'what people do with media', allowing for a variety of responses and interpretations. However, some commentators have argued that gratifications could also be seen as effects, for example thrillers are likely to generate very similar responses amongst most viewers.

Does this theory see the audience as active or passive? Why do you think this? Its an active audience as it chooses for different reasons: and the reasons are: To be informed and educated, to be entertained, to gain personal identify example the character traits as you are or the ones you gain while you watch as well as you can match  your identities with characters Integration and social interaction and escapism from reality as to be someone or something your not. Levy & Windahl (1985) provide a good description of what it means to be an "active consumer" of media: "As commonly understood by gratifications researchers, the term "audience activity" it suggests that media use is motivated by needs and goals that are defined by audience members themselves, and that active participation in the communication process may facilitate, limit, or otherwise influence the gratifications and effects associated with exposure. Current thinking also suggests that audience activity is best conceptualized as a variable construct, with audiences exhibiting varying kinds and degrees of activity.

Apply the theory to a film of your choice. If the theory is correct, what will be the response of the audience to the film? Most films are produced as entertainment for this is what audiences most want and therefore the film is most likely to make money. Any film that becomes much talked about (social interaction) can be considered an 'event movie'. If you have not seen the 'event movie' then you are likely to be left out of certain conversations. An example of this can be found in the movie, The Blair Witch Project (1999). Handheld footage. Non-diegetic sound of the ‘Doom’ when introducing the credits which explain ‘The project’ and also when the ‘Witch’ is near, almost simple but tense music. The use of silence when listening to important dialogue presented by the initial characters. Diegetic sound of the teenagers dialogue, screaming, interviews with local people who tell us (the spectator) about what they know of the 'Blair Witch’ and use of footsteps and branches snapping.  this film as a whole is not really mainstream and the actors within this film aren't heard of so this makes the movie more realistic and believable for the spectator because of the non recognition the characters.       The plot of the movie is introduced and it gives us initial ideas of what has happened, and what is going to happen within the movie without giving away the key scenes.    The use of editing in the movie is not really that advanced and the pace is slow as it involves hand held shots performed by the ‘characters’ within, the use of cutaways aren't as intense however they still have strong effect on the audience and the use of the black cutaway to introduce the credits are involved to keep the audience interested and to keep them on track.

Theory  4:  Two Step Flow Theory

Theorist/s: Paul Lazerfield, Bernard Berelson & Hazel Gaudet Lazerfield & Katz

When did the theory start? Started around the presidential elections, 1944 as it impacts on the ways they worked.

What is the theory? Mass media communicates with people, opinion leaders as the rest of the audience. When you’ve got someone between you and the original message and the opinion leaders choose what they show you and then what the influence is. This theory asserts that information from the media moves in two distinct stages. First, individuals (opinion leaders) who pay full on close attention to the mass media and its messages receive the information. Opinion leaders pass on their own interpretations in addition to the actual media content. The term ‘personal influence’ was coined to refer to the process intervening between the media’s direct message and the audience’s ultimate reaction to that message. Opinion leaders are quite influential in getting people to change their attitudes and behaviours and are quite similar to those they influence. The two-step flow theory has improved our understanding of how the mass media influence decision making. The theory refined the ability to predict the influence of media messages on audience behaviour, and it helped explain why certain media campaigns may have failed to alter audience attitudes on behaviour. The two-step flow theory gave way to the multi-step flow theory of mass communication or diffusion of innovation theory.

Does this theory see the audience as active or passive? Why do you think this? Semi passive audience as they passively take in the information of what the media say. Social network choose what you show. Whilst this model still suggests that we rely on others to help us understand messages, and that others influence how we consume; it is treating the audience as active and not passive.

Apply the theory to a film of your choice. If the theory is correct, what will be the response of the audience to the film? a movie which this theme is applied to is the film Mean Girls (2004), where the social system is greatly influenced by “opinion leaders” who forms others’ opinions. Mean Girls, loosely based around Rosalind Wiseman’s Queen Bees and Wannabes, audiences embark on a narrative that contains the generic clique system ‘The Plastics’ and the outsider straight from Africa and home schooled, Cady Heron. Mean Girls has these archetypes in many forms such as Karen the ‘bimbo’; however there is an element of subversion in characters, as they will have traits that do not conform to the archetype characters, as seen in the main protagonist, Cady.

  

Theory  5:  Cultivation Theory

Theorist/s: George Gerber.

When did the theory start? Mid 1960s

What is the theory? The theory is about how TV influences people and what gradual long term affects it has on the people watching it as well as how the people could be influenced, but it happens over time as it reinforces opinions by not changing it as it just matches your thoughts and reinforces your own views.

Does this theory see the audience as active or passive? Why do you think this? Passive audience as it generally fits into what you believe in.

Apply the theory to a film of your choice. If the theory is correct, what will be the response of the audience to the film? The Dark Knight Rises (2012) One majortheme is the concept of resurrection – Batman rises from “hell” the placed called “hell” on earth” in the film is a literal pit where people die, but it is extremely uncommon that people make it out alive. Jesus on the third day got up from the grave with all power in His hands. Interestingly, Batman was only in the pit for a little bit of time just like Jesus. Throughout the Gospels Jesus’ boldness about Him returning is prevalent. While talking to His disciples Jesus answered and said unto them, Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up” (John 2:19, King James Version). In this passage of scripture Jesus is talking about His body, not the literal temple. While in the pit, Batman’s body went through transformation he became stronger and faster while being cast down. “Therefore I take pleasure in weaknesses, in reproaches, in necessities, in persecutions, in distresses for Christ's sake: for when I am weak, then am I strong” (2 Corinthians 12:10, King James Version). He is determined to rise up even though there is a battle ahead of him, he allowed his own body to be bruised and broken for his people just like Jesus did.